NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples

NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples

Explain the agonist-to-antagonist spectrum of action of psychopharmacologic agents, including how partial and inverse agonist functionality may impact the efficacy of psychopharmacologic treatments NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples.

An agonist is a drug that activates the receptors fully to produce a message, signal, or secondary messenger, while an antagonist blocks and restricts the action of the agonists when they are present together. When this occurs, the antagonists block the receptor site and the agonists are not able to bind to the receptor to induce the cellular activity. Partial agonists are similar to agonists except their message transmission isn’t as strong. Inverse agonists are drugs that when bound to the receptor, change its shape and cause the active receptor to turn inactive. This leads to fewer receptors in the active state NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples. Even though this is similar to antagonists, the main difference is that once antagonists bind, there is no conformational change to the receptor; the binding site is just blocked. With the inverse agonist, it binds to the receptor site but switches the receptor from active to inactive. Agonists may increase cellular activity to the maximum efficiency, partial agonists may increase the cellular activity too, just not as high as the agonists (or even act as antagonists if it binds to the same receptor as the agonist), antagonists block the cellular activity, and inverse agonists decrease cellular activity (Berg & Clarke, 2018) NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples.

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Compare and contrast the actions of g couple proteins and ion gated channels.

G-coupled proteins (G protein-coupled receptors) and ion gated channels are both transmembrane signaling mechanisms that allow for transmitters to transport between the intracellular and extracellular spaces. G-coupled proteins are a group of receptors that work together in order to bring upon an effect into the cell. A ligand binds to part of the receptor in the extracellular matrix causing a conformational change NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples. From there the alpha subunit is activated, GDP is released while GTP is bound, and the beta-gamma subunits detach from the main unit. The alpha subunit and the beta-gamma subunits produce their own necessary cascade reactions (Pharmacology Animation, 2011). Ion gated channels open to allow certain ions through when ligands are bound. According to Pharmacology Animation, an example of this occurs between neurons. When acetylcholine leaves the synaptic cleft, it binds to the receptor on the receiving neuron which then opens the channel to allow sodium ions to go through (Pharmacology Animation, 2011).

Explain how the role of epigenetics may contribute to pharmacologic action.

Epigenetics is the practice of changing the function of a gene without necessarily changing its actual genetic code (Camprodon & Roffman, 2016). Knowing how a certain drug may affect a patient is very important because the same drug may affect different people. Knowing which genes may be “turned on or off” in a patient is crucial to know because how the drug is metabolized and absorbed varies and goes into the main thought process when developing medications to help treat illnesses.

Explain how this information may impact the way you prescribe medications to patients. Include a specific example of a situation or case with a patient in which the psychiatric mental health nurse practitioner must be aware of the medication’s action.

Knowing a patient’s family history is vital to figuring out how a drug may or may not affect them. Genetic testing may also become important when trying to figure out what’s best for the patient. For example, when prescribing a patient Depakote it’s important to realize that if the patient isn’t able to break down Depakote into valproic acid, the reuptake of GABA won’t occur and GABA levels won’t increase. In this case, looking at the family history (and the family medication history), alongside getting genetic testing to see whether certain processes (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or genes (the CYP2C9 and CYP2A6 genes) are mutated or missing is important to make sure that this medication is the right one for this patient (Ghodke-Puranik et al., 2013) NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples.

References:

Berg, K. A., & Clarke, W. P. (2018). Making sense of pharmacology: Inverse agonism and functional selectivity. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(10), 962–977. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyy071

Camprodon, J. A., & Roffman, J. L. (2016). Psychiatric neuroscience: Incorporating pathophysiology into clinical case formulation. In T. A. Stern, M. Favo, T. E. Wilens, & J. F. Rosenbaum. (Eds.), Massachusetts General Hospital psychopharmacology and neurotherapeutics (pp. 1–19). Elsevier 

Ghodke-Puranik, Y., Thorn, C. F., Lamba, J. K., Leeder, J. S., Song, W., Birnbaum, A. K., Altman, R. B., & Klein, T. E. (2013). Valproic acid pathway. Pharmacogenetics and Genomics, 23(4), 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1097/fpc.0b013e32835ea0b2 

Pharmacology Animation. (2011). Receptors and Second Messenger system; G-protein, Enzyme linked and Ligand gated ion channels. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VPJG_hy72m8.

By Day 3 of Week 2

NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples 2nd

In reaction to chemical instructions in the brain, most medications work at receptors as both agonists and antagonists. An agonist combines with the receptor partially or inversely to have an impact. Antagonists bind to receptors as well, but instead of producing a response, they inhibit the receptor from responding to a natural agonist (Wager et al., 2016). Quite crucial to note is that competitive antagonists can reverse both agonists and inverse agonists NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples. According to Wager et al. (2016) the blockage of serotonin receptors (5-HT2A) combined with the modest rivalry of dopamine receptors (D2) is crucial in the mightiness and effectiveness of atypical psychoactive medications (APD) because normal APD have a predisposition to alienate D2 receptors more potently as compared to 5-HT2A receptors.

Question 2.

Clinicians intending to aim at specific receptors with psychiatric medicines usually require knowledge of G-protein linked receptors (McPherson et al., 2018). However, all agonists do not activate G couple protein receptors in the same way serotonin, benzodiazepines, and other G couple protein receptors do in their constitutive form. Ion channels, on the other hand, are activated at receptors by neurotransmitter ligands. Because of signal transduction at receptors, many medications act on ion-channel complexes by changing the flow of ions in the course of the channels (McPherson et al., 2018). Medications that operate on ionotropic receptors are inclined to respond quickly due to changes in the flow of ions, whereas medicines that work on G-protein-related receptors function more slowly.

Question 3

A DNA code, according to genetics, transcribes to certain types of RNA or proteins within cells. Even though the human genome has more than 20,000 genes, not all are expressed in the brain (Rastgoo et al., 2017). Epigenetics takes a step further than genetics in that it determines whether a particular gene is translated into definite RNA and protein or is merely muted or ignored. If a genome is a glossary of all “words” connected to protein, then the epigenome is the “story” of all of those “words” coming together into something coherent (Rastgoo et al., 2017) NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples. In each neuron and the cell in the body, the genetic makeup of potential proteins is identical. For instance, in reference to psychiatric illnesses, whichever makes a normal neuron fail, or else the grounds a neuron ends up being a neuron but not a liver cell depends on whether or not certain genes are activated or silenced. Genes with aberrant sequences frequently affect neurons that aren’t working appropriately; consequently, mental illness can result if those genes are expressed rather than repressed (Rastgoo et al., 2017). Not only do inherited genes have a role in brain development but so do whether defective genes are activated and/or normal genes are suppressed. Neurotransmission, gene makeup, medicines, and the environment are only a few factors that influence whether genes are repressed or expressed. All of these elements play a role in determining whether the brain is occupied with memories, learning or full of drug misuse, psychiatric problems such as stress, and whether the use of medications and therapy can assist or not.

Question 4.

Comprehensive understanding of the agonistic/antagonistic effects of prescriptions and recommending medical treatments explicit to G couple protein receptors and tailored prescription profiles necessitated by epigenetic variations can be evident in some instances is critical for PMHNPs, they may stipulate psychotropic prescriptions to these patients (Solomon et al., 2019)Constitutive receptor activity has been discovered in G- couple protein receptors, a benzodiazepine. Moreover, it can be available in mutant sprains showing underactive behavior, which can result in inherited disorders, including diabetes insipidus and hypothyroidism (Wager et al., 2016). For schizophrenic patients who are at higher risk of extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) development; risperidone is acknowledged as it similarly occupies both 5-HT2A and D2 receptors, thus escalating the rate of EPS, while clozapine occupies less potently D2 receptors than 5-HT2A receptors, hence producing EPS barely (Solomon et al., 2019). Usually, the PMHNP’s job is to get to know their patients’ profiles and medical histories to recommend the most helpful and effective medications with the fewest side effects NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples.

References

McPherson, K. B., Leff, E. R., Li, M., Meurice, C., Tai, S., Traynor, J. R., & Ingram, S. L. (2018). Regulators of G-Protein Signaling (RGS) Proteins Promote Receptor Coupling to G-Protein-Coupled Inwardly Rectifying Potassium (GIRK) Channels. The Journal of Neuroscience, 38(41), 8737–8744. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.0516-18.2018

Rastgoo, N., Abdi, J., Hou, J., & Chang, H. (2017). Role of epigenetics-microRNA axis in drug resistance of multiple myeloma. Journal of Hematology & Oncology, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13045-017-0492-1

Solomon, Z. J., Mirabal, J. R., Mazur, D. J., Kohn, T. P., Lipshultz, L. I., & Pastuszak, A. W. (2019). Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators: Current Knowledge and Clinical Applications. Sexual Medicine Reviews, 7(1), 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sxmr.2018.09.006

Wager, T. T., Chappie, T., Horton, D., Chandrasekaran, R. Y., Samas, B., Dunn-Sims, E. R., Hsu, C., Nawreen, N., Vanase-Frawley, M. A., O’Connor, R. E., Schmidt, C. J., Dlugolenski, K., Stratman, N. C., Majchrzak, M. J., Kormos, B. L., Nguyen, D. P., Sawant-Basak, A., & Mead, A. N. (2016). Dopamine D3/D2 Receptor Antagonist PF-4363467 Attenuates Opioid Drug-Seeking Behavior without Concomitant D2 Side Effects. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 8(1), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00297

 

NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples 3rd

Understanding the agonist-to-antagonist spectrum of action with psychopharmacologic agents is best described by breaking down precisely what it means. Pharmacodynamics refers to what medications do to the body and how it is done. The treatment has to reach the target cells and bind to a receptor for the medicines to have an outcome. Receptors are found in the cell or on the membrane and bind to a molecule (Debevec-McKenney et al., 2022). After binding to a molecule, the shape and activity can be altered, changing the cell’s activity or performance. The medication’s effect on the receptor depends on if it is an agonist or antagonist. An agonist is going to stimulate a receptor. An antagonist will bind to a receptor without activating it but rather decrease its ability to activate another agonist (Debevec-McKenney et al., 2022) NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples. There are four different types of agonists drugs. They are classified as; full agonist, partial agonist, inverse agonist, and antagonist. A partial agonist does not reach maximum response-ability, even at full receptor possession (Yartsev, 2019). An inverse agonist reduces the molecules’ receptors in an active matter (Yartsev, 2019). These two may impact the efficiency of psychopharmacologic treatments, as some medications may not reach maximum potential with some patients.

Ion channel receptors are an essential part of the CNS and convert a chemical neurotransmitter message to an electrical current. G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are significant in neurotransmission and are activated by different molecules, hormones, and neurotransmitters (Cecchetelli & Hempstead, 2021). Ion-linked receptors bind to a molecule and open a channel through the membrane, allowing precise ions to pass through. GPCRs link receptors, bind to molecules, and trigger a G-protein membrane, which interrelates with either an ion channel or an enzyme in the membrane (Cecchetelli & Hempstead, 2021).

Epigenetics can have several definitions, but it ultimately means that gene function can be changed without precise code alterations. This change in the gene function can be inherited (Camprodon & Roffman, 2016). Epigenetic regulation of gene activity is significant in preserving cells’ regular phenotype activity. It also plays a crucial role in developing certain diseases like cancer and neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s disease (Stefanska & MacEwan, 2015). NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples Newer classes of medications have been shown to adjust epigenetic mechanisms to offset disease states in individuals (Stefanska & MacEwan, 2015).

Understanding pharmacodynamics as a PMHNP is an essential part of our role, as we must be conscious of the actions of each medication we are prescribing to our patients. We must also be mindful that each patient is different, and what works for one may not work for another. I have previously worked in a treatment facility for patients with substance abuse disorders. Most often, the patients had a dual diagnosis and had a mental illness as well. I administered Methadone and Suboxone at the treatment facility, two medications to treat opioid addiction. The patients who received either Methadone or Suboxone and who were also prescribed antipsychotic drugs had to be closely monitored by staff and the PMHNP, our primary prescriber. The program followed blind dosing of Methadone, so the patient was not allowed to know what they were taking and was titrated based on their individual needs and tolerance NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples. The PMHNP was actively involved for this reason and to monitor for side effects and the effectiveness of other prescribed medications.

References:

Camprodon, J. A., & Roffman, J. L. (2016). Psychiatric neuroscience:

Incorporating pathophysiology into clinical case formulation. In T. A.

Stern, M. Favo, T. E. Wilens, & J. F. Rosenbaum. (Eds.), Massachusetts

General Hospital psychopharmacology and neurotherapeutics (pp. 1–19).

Elsevier.

Cecchetelli, A., & Hempstead, A. (2021, February 11). GPCRs. Addgene.

https://blog.addgene.org

Debevec-McKenney, E., Aranda, A., Nixon-Shapiro, E., & Syrnioti, A. (2022).

Pharmacodynamics: Agonist, partial agonist, and antagonist. Osmosis.

https://www.osmosis.org/learn/

Pharmacodynamics: _Agonist,_partial_agonist_and_antagonist

Stefanska, B., & MacEwan, D. J. (2015). Epigenetics and pharmacology. British

journal of pharmacology, 172(11), 2701–2704. https://doi.org/10.1111/

bph.13136

Yartsev, A. (2019, January 31). Full agonists, partial agonists, and inverse

agonists. Pharmacodynamics. https://derangedphysiology.com NURS 6630 Week 2 Discussion: Foundational Neuroscience Essay Examples